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doi: 10.1172/JCI111281

Due to its fundamental role, it is not surprising that the carnitine homeostasis is strictly regulated ( FIGURE 1 Fatty Acid Oxidation Impairment and the Onset of Kidney Diseases The link between lipid accumulation and kidney disease was suggested for the first time in 1860 by Rudolf Virchow

In addition to being useful in diagnosing low thyroid in patients, SHBG can also be used to determine the optimal replacement dose or preparation (T4, T4/T3 vs straight T3)

Abbreviations FAO Fatty Acid Oxidation acyl-CoA acyl-Coenzyme A BCAA Branched-Chain Amino Acid BCAC Branched-Chain Acylcarnitine LCAC Long-Chain Acylcarnitine OXPHOS Oxidative Phosphorylation BCFA Branched-Chain Fatty Acid VLCFA Very Long-Chain Fatty Acid C16-Carnitine palmitoylcarnitine CPT1A Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase 1 A TML 6-N-trimethyllysine TMLD 6-N-trimethyllysine dioxygenase HTML 3-hydroxy-6-N-trimethyllysine TMABA 4-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde HTMLA 3-hydroxy-6-N-trimethyllysine aldolase TMABA DH 4-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde Dehydrogenase BB -Butyrobetaine BBD -Butyrobetaine Dioxygenase OCTN Organic Cation Transporter Novel CrAT Carnitine Acetyltransferase CrOT Carnitine Octanoyltransferase TMA Trimethylamine TMAO Trimethylamine-N-oxide TMAVA Trimethyl-5-Aminovaleric Acid PDC Pyruvate Dehydrogenase IRI Ischemia-Reperfusion injury AKT Protein Kinase B PI3K Phosphatidylinositol-3-Kinase AMPK AMP-Activated Protein Kinase JNK c-Jun N-terminal Kinase mTOR mechanistic Target Of Rapamycin MAPK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase NF-B Nuclear Factor B Nrf2 the Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 TNF- Tumor Necrosis Factor CAT Catalase COX-2 Cyclooxygenase-2 ERK Extracellular signal-Regulated Kinase ROS Oxygen Species MDA Malondialdehyde SOD Superoxide Dismutase MyD88 Myeloid Differentiation factor 88 ER Endoplasmic Reticulum PGC-1 Peroxidase proliferator-activated receptor coactivator-1 PPAR Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor GST Glutathione-S-Transferase GSH Reduced Glutathione GSH-Px Glutathione peroxidase GSSG Oxidized Glutathione TBARS Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances NLRP3 NOD-Like Receptor Thermal Protein Domain Associated Protein 3 COX2 Cyclooxygenase-2 Cyt c Cytochrome c HO-1 Heme Oxygenase-1 FOXO Forkhead box O IGF-1 Insulin like Growth Factor-1 BDNF Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor NGF Nerve Growth Factor NQO1 NAD(P)H Quinone Oxidoreductase 1 Author contributions FX: Investigation, Writing original draft

Cytokines and inflammatory markers, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-) and interleukins 1 or 6 (IL-1, IL-6), further indicate the level of hepatocyte-macrophage apoptosis (Hu et al., 2025)